History of US education

[Pat McCotter]

I am reading up on history of education in the US to try to determine what learning should be.

I was reading about apprenticeship training: (http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/)

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After young boys aged 6-8 completed their education at the "Dame school," they were able to read. The curriculum allowed only limited math and writing skills. At about age 9, they were given little choice in their destiny.

Their parents chose for them one of the three options. Attendance at a Latin School, which had college prep courses, would further their reading skills. Most did not go on to college, since at that time the curriculum was only for the training of ministers of the Christian faith. As a second choice, boys could be trained at home in the occupation of their father. This had obvious benefits and required no extra cost to the family. The third option, apprenticeship, occasionally required monthly payments to the craftsman who served as employer.
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The same site had this description of the Dame school:

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The Dame School was what we might call today an informal day care center. It involved parents leaving their children with a neighborhood lady (a "dame," as such ladies were then called) who would teach the children their letters (abc's), numbers, and prayers while she went about her daily household tasks.
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[Pat McCotter]

http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/soucolon.html

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First and foremost, Southerners believed that education was a private matter and not a concern for the state. They were quick to point out that in all traditional societies the most important training a child receives is in the home where he/she is inducted into the values of the society he/she is about to enter. If the family fails in this endeavor, then how can the schools be more successful?
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As public opinion solidified in the south in defense of the Southern way of life, ideas originating in the north, particularly regarding education, were considered "subversive". The Prussian educational methods so popular in New England were denounced as "autocratic."
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[Pat McCotter]

http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/masslaws.html

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The first brick on the road to compulsory education in America was laid by the Massachusetts Act of 1642.
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The Law of 1642 required that parents and master see to it that their children knew the principles of religion and the capital laws of the commonwealth.

Perhaps the most important aspect of the Law of 1642 was that it was a law that had nothing to do with "school" at all. It stated that parents and masters of those children who had been apprenticed to them were responsible for their basic education and literacy. All children, and servants as well, should be able to demonstrate competency in reading and writing as outlined by the governing officials. The idea behind this, once again, was that if all citizens could understand the written language on some basic level, all citizens would be able to understand and therefore, abide by the governing laws of the land. At this point in time there was no concept of a formal school as we know it today; it was understood that each person would be educated enough to meet the individual needs of their station in life and social harmony would be that much closer. Who better to educate their children than their parents? The law did state, however, that should the above mentioned parents and masters grow lax in their responsibility and their children not be able to meet basic criteria it would be the government's right to remove the child from the home and place him or her in a place where he or she could receive adequate instruction.
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[Pat McCotter]

http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/masslaws.html

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The Law of 1647, also known as the Old Deluder Satan Act, was born out of this above-mentioned parental negligence. It was at this point in our nation's educational history that formal schooling as we know it became more desirable.

The Law of 1647 required that towns of fifty families hire a schoolmaster who would teach children to read and write. Towns of a hundred families must have a grammar schoolmaster who could prepare children to attend Harvard College.
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[Pat McCotter]

http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/franklin.html

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[Ben Franklin] attended grammar school from age 8 to 10 and had some private writing and arithmetic lessons. At age 13, he was apprenticed to his older brother James, who had recently returned from England with a new printing press. Franklin learned the printing trade and devoted his spare time to advancement of his self-education. In 1721, Franklin's brother James founded the New England Courant in Boston.
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[Pat McCotter]

http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/rush.html

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[Benjamin Rush] was one of the founders of Dickenson college, and he spoke and wrote about education topics frequently.  He was interested in many social reforms, with one of his top priorities being reform of American education.  He wanted American education to be in line with American needs, and work along with the principles of democracy.

In 1786, Benjamin Rush produced a plan of education that he hoped would meet the needs of democracy.  He believed, along with Adams, Madison, and others, that the only security of a republic lay in a proper education.  Hence Rush wrote the monumental essay entitled "Thoughts Upon the Mode of Education Proper in a Republic.".
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This page goes on to summarize the 20 points Rush made in that essay.

[Pat McCotter]

http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/rush.html

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[Benjamin Rush] was one of the founders of Dickenson college, and he spoke and wrote about education topics frequently.? He was interested in many social reforms, with one of his top priorities being reform of American education.? He wanted American education to be in line with American needs, and work along with the principles of democracy.

In 1786, Benjamin Rush produced a plan of education that he hoped would meet the needs of democracy.? He believed, along with Adams, Madison, and others, that the only security of a republic lay in a proper education.? Hence Rush wrote the monumental essay entitled "Thoughts Upon the Mode of Education Proper in a Republic.".
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This page goes on to summarize the 20 points Rush made in that essay.

Well, after reading the page, I only see 19 and here they are:

* Education must take place in the United States.     
* Supreme regard for country.
* Duty must be coupled with "republican principles"; with progressive development.
* Amusements may educate for democracy.
* A new type of education required for new type of duties and new social control.
* Latin and Greek not suited to American education.
* Education and the development of national resources
* Effect of devoting to science the time then spent upon the study of Greek and Latin.
* Elimination of prejudices in higher education
* Curriculum suitable for American democracy
* Special emphasis upon history for nationalistic culture.
* Young men made by education into "republican machines"
* Education of women in citizenship; their particular duties in a republic.
* Utilitarian character of female education/ peculiar duties of American womanhood.
* Kind of education required
* Indigenous manners and institutions
* Schools to teach forgetting.
* Liberation of thought and life; Society for Promoting Political Enquiries.
* Liberal national support for educated teachers.

[Pat McCotter]

Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance of 1787

http://www.nd.edu/~rbarger/www7/ord17857.html
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In an effort to consolidate schools and make education mandatory, Congress enacted the Land Ordinance of 1785. This ordinance set aside what was known as Section Sixteen in every township in the new Western Territory for the maintenance of public schools. It also allotted section number 29 for the purpose of religion and no more than two townships for a University. The separation of church and state was visible by now with the two entities being in different areas. Public schools were organized to corral the best minds for training for public leadership.
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A summary of the Land Ordinance:
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The Land Ordinance of 1785 divided the western territory into individual townships. Each township was to be square. Each side of the square was to be six miles in length, and the completed square would include a total of thirty-six square miles of territory. The town would then be divided into one-square mile sections, with each section encompassing 640 acres. Each section received its own number. Section sixteen was set aside for a public school. The federal government reserved sections eight, eleven, twenty-six, and twenty-nine to provide veterans of the American Revolution with land bounties for their service during the war. The government would sell the remaining sections at public auction. The minimum bid was 640 dollars per section or one dollar for very acre of land in each section.
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Text of the Land Ordinance of 1785

[AlanM]

Before the Prussian style schooling system took control of the US schools, the goal of schools and self-taught students, was to become educated. That may seem strange, but if you research the Prussian system you will find the goal is to "train", and minimally so, for a place in society and the work force. Subjagation is the principal value of the system. Are logic and rhetoric taught in schools today, for instance? It was common in colonial days to receive training in these valuable skills. To be able to persuade with logic, to express your thoughts well, and with wit and logic are valuable to individuals, but not to a student considered to be one of the masses.

[AlanM]

Here is a selection from: The Arte of Rhetoricke by Thomas Wilson 1525-1581

Reading the olde style spelling can be difficult, but it is Phonetic.


What is Rhetorique?
Rhetorique is an art to set furthe by utteraunce of wordes, matter at
large, or (as Cicero doeth saie) it is a learned, or rather an
artificiall declaracion of the mynde, in the handelyng of any cause,
called in contencion, that maie through reason largely be discussed.

The matter whereupon an Oratour must speak.

An Orator muste be able to speake fully of all those
questions,whiche by lawe and mannes ordinaunce are enacted, and
appoyncted for the use and profite of man, suche as are thought apte
for the tongue to set forward.  Now Astronomie is rather learned by
demonstracion, then taught by any greate utteraunce.  Arithmetique
smally nedeth the use of eloquence seeyng it maie be had wholy by
nombryng onely.  Geometrie rather asketh a good square, then a
cleane flowyng tongue, to set out the arte.  Therfore an Orators
profession, is to speake onely, of all suche matters as maie largely
be expounded, for mannes behove, and maie with muche grace be set
out, for all men to heare theim.

Of Questions.

Every question, or demaunde in thynges, is of two sortes.  Either it
is an infinite question, and without ende, or els it is definite, and
comprehended within some ende.

Those questions are called infinite, whiche generally are
propounded, withoute the comprehension of tyme, place, and person,
or any such like:  that is to saie, when no certain thyng is named, but
onely woordes are generally spoken.  As thus, whether it is best to
marie, or to live single.  Whiche is better, a courtiers life, or a
scholers life.

Those questions are called definite, whiche set furthe a matter,
with the appoynctment, and namyng of place, time, and persone.  As
thus.  Whether now it be best here in Englande, for a Prieste to
Marie, or to live single.  Whether it were mete for the kynges majestie,
that now is, to marie with a straunger, or to mary with one of his awn
subjectes.  Now the definite question (as the whiche concerneth some
one persone) is moste agreyng to the purpose of an Oratour consideryng
particuler matters in the Lawe, are ever debated betwixte certain persones,
the one affirmyng for his parte, and the other deniyng, as fast again
for his parte.

Thynges generally spoken without al circumstaunces, are more
proper unto the Logician, who talketh of thynges universally,
without respect of persone, time, or place.  And yet
notwithstandyng, Tullie doeth saie, that whosoever will talke of a
particuler matter, must remember that within thesame also, is
comprehended a generall.  As for example.  If I shall aske this
question, whether it be lawfull for Willyam Conqueroure to invade
Englande, and wynne it by force of armour, I must also consider this,
whether it be lawfull for any man, to usurpe power, or it be now
lawfull.  That if the greater cannot be borne withall, the lesse cannot be
neither.  And in this respecte, a generall question agreeth well to an
Oratours profession, and ought well to be knowen, for the better furtheraunce
of his matter, notwithstandyng the particuler question, is ever called in
controversie, and the generall onely thereupon considered, to comprehende and
compasse thesame, as the whiche is more generall.

The ende of Rethorique.

Three thynges are required of an Orator.  To teache.  To delight.  And
to perswade.

First therefore an Orator muste labour to tell his tale, that the
hearers maie well knowe what he meaneth, and understande him
wholy, the whiche he shall with ease do, if he utter his mind in plain
wordes, suche as are usually received, and tell it orderly, without
goyng aboute the busshe.  That if he doe not this, he shall never do
the other.  For what manne can be delited or yet be perswaded, with
the onely hearyng of those thynges, whiche he knoweth not what thei
meane.  The tongue is ordeined to expresse the mynde, that one mighte
understande anothers meanyng: Nowe what availeth to speake, when
none can tell, what the speaker meaneth?  Therefore Phavorinus the
Philosopher (as Gellius telleth the tale) did hit a yong man over the
thumbes, very handsomely for usyng over olde, and over straunge woordes.  Sirha (quoth he) when
our old great auncesters and grandsires wer alive thei spake plainly
in their mothers tongue, and used old language, such as was spoken
at the building of Rome.  But you talke me suche Latin, as though you
spake with them even now, that were two or thre thousande yeres
ago, and onely because you would have no man, to understand what
you saie.  Now wer it not better for the a thousand fold (thou
foolishe fellowe) in sekyng to have thy desire, to holde thy peace,
and speake nothyng at all?  for then by that meanes, fewe should
knowe what were thy meanyng.  But thou saiest, the olde antiquitee
doeth like thee best, because it is good, sobre, and modest.  Ah, live
man as thei did before thee, and speake thy mynde now, as menne do
at this daie.  And remember that, whiche Cesar saieth, beware as
long as thou livest, of straunge woordes, as thou wouldest take hede
and eschewe greate rockes in the Sea.

The next parte that he hath to plaie, is to chere his gestes, and to
make them take pleasure, with hearyng of thynges wittely devised,
and pleasauntly set furthe.  Therfore every Orator should earnestly
laboure to file his tongue, that his woordes maie slide with ease,
and that in his deliveraunce, he maie have suche grace, as the sound
of a lute, or any suche instrument doeth geve.  Then his sentencies
must be well framed, and his wordes aptly used, throughout the
whole discourse of his Oracion.

Thirdly, suche quicknesse of witte must be shewed, and suche
pleasaunt sawes so well applied, that the eares maie finde muche
delite, whereof I will speake largely, when I shall entreate of
movyng laughter.  And assuredly nothyng is more nedefull, then to
quicken these heavie loden wittes of ours, and muche to cherishe
these our lompishe and unweldie natures, for excepte menne finde
delight, thei will not long abide:  delight theim, and wynne them: 
werie theim, and you lose theim for ever.  And that is the reason,
that menne commonly tary the ende of a merie plaie, and cannot abide
the halfe hearyng of a sower checkyng Sermon.  Therefore, even these
auncient preachers, must now and then plaie the fooles in the pulpite,
to serve the tickle eares of their fleetyng audience, or els thei are like
some tymes to preache to the bare walles, for though the spiritie bee apte,
and our will prone, yet our fleshe is so heavie, and humours so overwhelme
us, that wee cannot without refreshyng, long abide to heare any one
thyng.  Thus we se, that to delight is nedefull, without the whiche,
weightier matters will not be heard at all, and therefore hym cunne I
thanke, that bothe can and will ever, myngle swete, emong the
sower, be he Preacher, Lawyer, yea, or Cooke either hardely, when he
dresseth a good dishe of meate:  now I nede not tell that scurrilitie,
or Alehouse jestyng, would bee thought odious, or grosse mirthe
would be deamed madnesse:  consideryng that even the meane witted
doe knowe that already, and as for other, that have no witte, thei
will never learne it, therefore God spede them.  Now when these
twoo are dooen, he muste perswade, and move the affeccions of his
hearers in such wise, that thei shalbe forced to yelde unto his
saiyng, wherof (because the matter is large, and maie more aptly bee
declared, when I shall speake of Amplificacion) I wil surcease to
speake any thyng therof at this tyme.

[AlanM]

A view of education from Thomas Love Peacock:

Prospectus: Classical Education


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THE PRINCIPAL object of education is to communicate to the youthful mind that love of mental and moral improvement, which will continue to act with a steady and permanent impression when no longer directed by the hand of the preceptor. That this disposition is most effectively promoted by an intimate acquaintance with the poets, philosophers, and historians of antiquity appears to be generally acknowledged, though the total neglect of classical studies among the young men of the present age, who, in the language of the time have finished their education, seems to shew that in the method usually employed to introduce them to an acquaintance with these inimitable models of eloquence there is some inherent and radical defect.
  In fact it too frequently happens that the instructors of youth aim only at communicating the knowledge of the words and rules of a language, without exciting the taste of the student to penetrate into the beauties of the authors who have written in it: and instead of leading him forward by an easy and pleasant progress, involve him in the first instance in studies so dry, disgusting, and repulsive that the first ideas he associates with classical literature are those of weariness, pain, and privation.
  The youthful mind should be taught from the beginning to take pleasure in the acquisition of knowledge, and to pursue it for its own sake: when this object has not been accomplished, the end of education has not been answered.
  The child who learns his lessons under the dread of punishment, or the hope of reward, may proceed with rapidity through the common routine of academical education, but when these motives cease to operate, the effects they have produced will terminate. The pupil who is made to feel the value of knowledge, and to pursue it for its intrinsic advantages and pleasures, is alone likely to become an accomplished and useful member of society.
  The mind must be excited and awakened before it can be cultivated to advantage. On this account it was the opinion of the ancients that the first years of youth should be devoted to poetry. But it is not enough for this purpose to discipline a reluctant child with the minutiae of syntax and prosody: he must be led by the conviction of future gratification to proceed with diligence through these toilsome acquisitions, as the peasant must be to conceive a prospect of harvest before he can be stimulated to the labour of turning the soil.
  The harmonious language and delightful poetry of Italy are admirably adapted to form the taste of youth, and must be regarded as an indispensable requirement of elegant education.
  Those who have been educated in large cities are seldom persons of superior taste: to the acquisition of which an early acquaintance with the beauties of nature is indispensable. The youth who, unacquainted with the country, reads in a populous city the beautiful descriptions of Homer and Virgil, derives no pleasure from the language to which his fancy yields no corresponding images: but he who under kind and skilful superintendence, amidst the wild beauties of nature, associates the ideas of the great poets with the living landscapes around him, derives from the pleasure thus experienced an ardent love of letters which accomplishes at once the great objects of education, and of which the salutary effects will be felt to the latest period of life.
  This mode of education, requiring more art and attention than the common mode of instruction, can only be properly pursued amongst a limited number of pupils, not so small as to exclude emulation, nor so numerous as to prevent the most sedulous attention to any individual of the establishment.



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